7: THE SOYBEAN REVOLUTION

"Abstain from beans."

--PYTHAGORAS. ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.),

• • • On the Pythagoreans. According to Aristotle, this Pythagorean rule had nothing to do with politics; beans were banished from the diet because they resembled the testicles. Diogenes Laertius (200 A.D.) states that Pythagoras (582-500 B.C.) was captured and killed by some enemies pursuing him because he refused to cross a field of beans.

Pythagorus may not have liked beans, but beans have, in the recent years, saved mankind from starvation. Today, soybeans are perhaps the single most crop in the world. "Yellow Jewel," "great treasure," "heaven's bird," and "brings happiness" are some of the names given to soybean crops in different parts of the world. The ancient Chinese considered soybeans to be one of the five sacred grains necessary for life (the others being rice, barley, wheat and millet).

Soybeans, annuals which belong to the lentil and pea family, were discovered about 3,000 yeas ago growing wild as vines by the Chinese. By 1100 B.C.,the Chinese had "domesticated" the soybean vine to grow straight up and to bear larger seeds. Soybeans were introduced to the West by the prominent Swedish biologist Carolus Linnaeus in 1737 and to the New World by Samuel Bowen, a merchant who brought these seeds from China in 1765.

It remained an agricultural curiosity in the West for the next century until the French started to explore its nutritional value. All this while the Chinese and Japanese were perfecting hundreds of ways to use soybeans, the most popular being to make dofu, or tofu. Tofu is made by boiling and crushing soybean seeds, coagulating the resultant milk and pressing the curd. There are at least a thousand variations of this simple process, yielding tofu of different tastes and consistencies.

Cultivated in the U.S. since the beginning of this century, soybeans were used mainly for animal feeds until the end of World War II. A few farsighted people, like Henry Ford, saw a future for it but did little to promote its production. Ford said he would rather "grow cars than mine them," using soybean components.

Between 1945 and 1985 the U.S. production of soybeans increased eleven-fold, reaching 165 billion pounds of seeds, meal and oil. This represents almost half of the total world production. Two-third of the soybeans produced in the U.S. are exported, to the tune of about four billion dollars, making U.S. as the world's largest exporter of soybeans. American ingenuity has produced over 7,000 genetic variations of soybeans and the state of Illinois is the largest worldwide producer, with much of the research carried on at the University of Illinois.

The value of the soybean plant is in its seed which is about 40 percent protein (about twice the amount found in other legumes and more than in lean beef) and 20 percent fat. A wide variety of food and household products use soybean oil. On an average, each man, woman and child in the U.S. consumes six gallons of this oil per year or almost 40 percent of their total fat and oil intake. You will find soybean components in just about every processed product on the grocery store shelf, from candies to cookies to sauces.

However, direct use of soybeans, in the form of tofu only started about 12 years ago in this country. Today there are over 150 manufacturers of tofu in the U.S. and their most successful product is "tofu ice cream." With over 50 brands of tofu ice cream on the market, sales have jumped six-fold during the past two years.Another dramatic nutritional development is the use of soybeans in infant formulas. These soybean-based formulas now account for the largest share of the formula market.

Formulas are compounded to closely resemble human milk.Manufacturers manipulate the proportion of nutrients, altering the casein:whey ratio to improve protein quality. A mixture of vegetable and animal fats is used to increase the essential fatty acids and enhance fat absorption, and vitamins and minerals are added (appendix 7.1 and 7.2).

Soymilk was used as a milk substitute for infants for the first time in 1909 in Baltimore by Dr. J. Ruhrah, who published the first medical report on his findings. His pioneering work was, however plagued with difficulties. In his paper he stated:

I had hoped to make a more complete clinical report at

this time, but several misfortunes have attended my

efforts to secure the beans. My first crop was eaten by

rats, my second molded in the pods during some

unusually damp weather, and insects ate two third of my

last crop." Late in 1911, he recommended a soy-based

formula "to be used in cases of summer diarrhea and in

cases where cow's milk doesn't agree with the infant.

In 1929, the first commercial formula of its kind was produced by Mead, Johnson and Company based on the formula described by Drs. Hill and Stuart of Boston. In 1936, Mullsoy, the first liquid soy-based formula, was developed by Borden Special Products laboratory (Syntex Infant Formulas). This was followed in 1939, by SoyalaceR developed by Loma Linda Laboratories, California. The development of this formula was based on Dr. Harry Miller's experiences with soy in China. Dr. Miller was a Seventh Day Adventist medical missionary who returned to the U.S. because of World War II. Today, Loma Linda remains the focal point for soy-based products, which include such variations as soy hot dogs, turkeys and a variety of simulated meat products based on soya. The early soy infant formulas were made from fat-free soy flour, had a caramel-like color and an unpleasant nutty flavor. They contained some indigestible carbohydrates which caused increased flatulence, foul smelling stools and diaper staining.

In the 1950s, several reports brought to light nutritional deficiency in infants fed soy formulas. One of these, a lack of iodine, causes goiter. Also, the organic solvents used in the preparation of the formulas of that era removed various fat-soluble vitamins.

In the mid-1960s, a new round of soybean formulas was developed, based mainly on an ingredient developed by the Ralston Purina Company of St. Louis. A soy protein isolate is a highly purified water soluble soy protein, now the basis for most soy formulas. The Ralston Purina Company is the major supplier of the soy protein isolate and the process of making it is a tedious six-step process, still one of the best-kept trade secrets in America a la the Coca-Cola formula. Soy protein isolates are, by definition, at least 90 percent proteins (the rest being oils, ash and carbohydrates) and are classified by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in their GRAS (generally regarded as safe) list as food additives.

During the past 20 years soy protein isolates have gradually replaced soy flour and concentrate as the sole source of protein in milk-free infant formulas. The amino acids in soy proteins isolate are remarkably well matched with the composition of human milk. Several patents issued on the composition of soy-based formulas attests to the myriad developments in this field (appendix 7.3).

Soy protein isolate formulas are available in three forms: concentrate liquid, powder and "ready to feed" formulas. The fats used in these formulas are derived from vegetable sources except in NursoyR (Wyeth Labs) which uses an animal oil. Sucrose and carbohydrates are the major sources of carbohydrates instead of lactose.There are, of course, disadvantages to soya formulas such as the highly erratic absorption of minerals. Earlier formulas contained phytic acid, which combines with minerals to prevent their absorption from the intestine. Heating does not destroy phytic acid.

The absence of lactose in soy formulas also reduces absorption of minerals. The absorption of minerals is best in human milk, followed by cow's milk and least efficient in soy formulas.

Like other plants, soybeans contain natural toxins, lectins, goitrogens and antitrypsin. Some of these toxins are destroyed upon heating making the basis of a recommendation to heat soy milk formulas to reduce exposure to these toxins and to reduce allergic reactions.

Another drawback of some soy formulas is the increased flatulence due to small carbohydrate molecules (such as raffinose and stachose). Humans do not have enzymes to digest these carbohydrates and as a result they undergo fermentation in the colon, producing gases and often diarrhea. This situation is, however, easily remedied by choosing another brand which contains little or no offendingcarbohydrates, by diluting the formula or by substituting a glucose-based formula.

Contrary to popular belief, however, formulas based on the soy protein isolate have fewer flatulence producing properties. About 10 percent of infants given soya formula develop intolerance to soya proteins. Also, about one-fourth of those sensitive to cow's milk become sensitive to soybean proteins with time. The use of soy formula is not recommended to manage colic pains or as a substitute for cow's milk when severe allergies are reported.

Regarding the use of soy formulas to reduce allergies, the Committee on Nutrition of the American Academy of Pediatrics states: "At this time, evidence suggests that soy protein may be less allergenic than heat-treated, cow's milk protein and is probably a better source of nutrition in allergy-prone infants." The Committee further comments on the use of formulas in premature births: "The disadvantages of soy protein formulas for very low-birth-weight infant feeding indicate that these formulas should not be used for prolonged feeding of very low-birth-weight infants. Rather, they should be used only for specific therapeutic indications and for periods of not more than three to four weeks."Sudden death syndrome and other ailments like colitis, breast cancer, heart disease and multiple sclerosis have from time to time been blamed on formula feeding. There is no scientific basis for these rumors and no proof that breast-feeding would have prevented them.On the flip side we can look at the advantages of soy formulas. Lack of lactose in soy formulas produces fewer intolerance symptoms.

Several studies have compared the growth of infants on soy formulas with those on cow's milk. Except isolated findings of calcium and phosphate deficiency, no growth differences are found in soy formula feeding when compared with cow's milk feeding.

Several other chemicals, such as hormones, found in higher concentration in animal milk products, are absent in soy formulas.

And for those who want to stay strictly vegetarian, feeding infants soy formula remains an ideal solution.Keep in mind there are soya-based drinks, as opposed to soy-based formulas, do not conform to the nutritional requirements of infant formulas and are not interchangeable. The soybean revolution in infant formulas has benefitted the present generation of Americans tremendously. The formula industry, nonexistent at the turn of the century, is flourishing today. Manufacturers plough a lot of their sales dollars back into research to create new formulas with the hope that sometime in the near future they will develop a formula that will mirror human milk. There will, however, never be a true substitute to human milk for one simple reason--human milk composition varies depending on the needs of the infant, a feat not possible with any substitute. Furthermore, despite the scientific advances we have still not able to find all components of human milk.

The progress of soy formula manufacturers was hampered by a misconception that cow's milk is ideal for infants. First attempts, therefore, were aimed at imitating cow's milk, not a very good idea. Armed with the knowledge of physiology of digestion, immunology and hormone chemistry, the formula producers are trying to catch up with nature. Whether they come close or not, only time will tell; in the meantime, let us give hand to the Chinese bean. Pythagorus would have changed his mind about beans if he were living today.

APPENDIX 7.1

TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF SOY FORMULAS

Component Per 100ml

Protein, g 2-2.1

Fat, g 3.6-3.7

Carbohydrate, g 6.6-6.9

Sodium, mEq 0.87-2.0

Potassium, mEq 1.8-2.0

Calcium, mEq 63-79

Phosphorus, mg 44-53

Chloride, mEq 1-2.6

Iron, mg 1.2-1.6

Zinc, ug 0.37-0.53

Iodine, ug 6-10

APPENDIX 7.2

COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL SOYBEAN FORMULAS

Nutrient IsomilR ProsobeeR l-SoyalacR SoyalacR

Protein 2.0 2.1 2.1 2.1

Fat 3.6 3.6 3.7 3.7

Carbohydrate 6.8 6.9 6.6 6.6

Ash (mg) 380 400 400 400

Sodium(mEq) 1.3 1.8 1.8 na

Potassium(mEq) 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0

Calcium(mEq) 70 79 63.4 63.4

Phosphours(mg) 50 53 52.8 52.8

Chloride(mEq) 1.5 1.2 2.6 1.3

Iron(mg) 1.2 1.2 1.6 1.6

Zinc(mg) 0.5 0.53 na na

Iodine(mcg) 10 6.87 na na

All values are percent (gram/100 milliliter), except where noted otherwise; Isomil and Prosobee also contain coconut oil, Soyalac contains soy and not the protein isolate; carbohydrate source is corn syrup and sucrose in Isomil and Soyalac, corn syrup alone in Prosobee and sucrose and tapioca in l-Soyalac.

APPENDIX 7.3IMPORTANT U.S. PATENTS ON INFANT FORMULAS

MANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL MILK. Patent # 1,139,031, May 11, 1915 to Fritz Gossel, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Germany. "This invention relates to the maufacturing of artifical milk from vegetable seeds or beans in a manner similar to that described in my prior Patent 1,082,118 patented December 23, 1913. The present invention is directed to a process of manufacturing such an aritifical milk in a cheap and effective manner."

.PROCESS OF MAKING SOY-MILK. Patent # 1,165,199, Dec. 21, 1915, to Louis J. Monhan and Charles J. Pope, Oshkosh, Wisconsin. "The invention relates to a new process of producing milk and its products from vegetable known as soy bean, (Soja hispada,) the object being to provide an edible article to directly compete with cow's milk for human food with the advantages of the elimination of germ disease due to the animal secretions and to produce an article free from elements harmful to diabetics."

.SUBSTITUTE FOR MILK, MADE FROM SOYA-BEANS AND ARACHIS (PEA) NUTS. Patent # 1,243,855, Oct. 23, 1917, to William J. Melhuish, Parkstone, England. "This invention relates to the production of a substitute for milk in the form of a milk-like fluid having practically the same characteristics as milk with reference to its food value, action and culinary properties. It supersedes my specification No. 24,572 of 1913, in that it requires less plant, saves time and expense in production, and there is no need to purchase refined oils for the normal cream building."

.SOY FOOD PRODUCT. Patent # 3,627,537, Dec 14, 1971, to Charles I. Beck, et al., assigned to General Millks, Inc. Minneapolis, Minnessota. " A food product is described which includes a soy material and a flavor modifying agent. The flavor modifying agent may be citrus peel, an extract from citrus peel or a terpene. The flavor modifying agent is used in an amount sufficient to reduce or eliminate the characteristic soy taste of the food product and yet below the level at which the flavor of the agent itself is recognizable."

.PREPARATION OF A SIMULATED MILK PRODUCT. Patent # 3,843,828, Oct 22, 1974, to Robert H. Arndt assigned to Ralston Purina Co., St. Loius, Missouri. "A simulated milk product is prepared by a process involving forming a mixture of sweet whey and isolated vegetable protein, adjusting the pH of the mixture and subjecting the mixture to heating and vapor flash treatment to remove objectionable flavors and odors. A special vegetable oil or fat is added before or after the vapor flash treatment. After the vapor flash treatment and after fat addition, the pH is adjusted and the mixture is subjected to severe homogenization."

.PROCESS FOR PRODUCING SOYBEAN FOOD PASTE AND THE RESULTING PRODUCT. Patent # 3,865,956, Feb. 11, 1975, to Danji Fukushima et al., assigned to Kikkoman Shoyu Co., Ltd., Noda-shi, Japan. "Soybean food paste free from soybean smell is produced by roasting soybeans or defatted soybeans under an atmospheric pressure; or heating the soybeans or defatted beans under a high pressure in the state of low moisture content and then releasing the pressure lrapidly therby to expand the beans; pulverizing the roasted or expanded soybeans to 200 microns or less; then mixing the resulting powders with an edible fat or oil which is solid or semi-solid at a room temperature, if necessary, together with an emulsifying agent, seasoning agent, spice and/or other food additives; and kneading the resulting mixture."

.PREPARATION OF FAT-CONTAINING BEVERAGES. Patent # 4,031,261, June 21, 1977, to Jack R. Durst, assigned to The Pillsbury Company, Minneapolis, Minnessota. "Fat-containing neverages such as shakes for frozen storage and thawing by reconstitution are prepared by vigorously mixing edible fat in liquid state with an edible hydrophilic film former and water while the film former is in saturated solution to encapsulate the fat with the film former and produce a stable disperison. Thereafter, additional water is added to dilute the dispersion to the consistency of the beverage being prepared and the diluted disperiosn is mixed to produce a smooth uniform dispersion and overrun, and frozen to a hard solid mass. Several configurations of the frozen bveverage especially adapted for rapid reconstitution by mcirowave energy are disclosed."

.NUTRITIVE SEAMOSS COMPOSITION AND METHOD FOR PREPARING SAME. Patent # 4,180,595, Dec. 25, 1979, to Bernier Lauredan. "An edible seamoss composition containing water, gum arabic, dry linseed, seamoss, milk sweeteners and flavoring. The composition may be used as a base for stablized drinks."

.PROCESS FOR PREPARING IMPROVED SOY PROTEIN MATERIALS. Patent # 4,186,218, Jan 28, 1980, to Teru Gomi et al., and assigned to Ajinmoto Co., Inc. Tokyo, Japan. "A process particularly designed to further improve soy protein previously denatured by superheating treatment and/or alcohol extraction comprises ejecting an aqueous slurry of the denatured soy protein through an orifice into a holding chamber under prescribed conditions. Nitrogen solubility index is improved."